Trios Vol

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Trios Vol

Andy Warhol

Childhood

Andy Warhol was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He was the fourth child of Ondrej Warhola and Ulja, whose first child was born in their homeland and died before their migration to the U.S. His parents were working-class immigrants from Mik (now called Mikov), in northeastern Slovakia, then part of Austro-Hungarian Empire. Warhol's father immigrated to the US in 1914, and his mother joined him in 1921, after the death of Andy Warhol's grandparents. Warhol's father worked in a coal mine. The family lived at 55 Beelen Street and later at 3252 Dawson Street in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh. The family was Byzantine Catholic and attended St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church. Andy Warhol had two older brothers, Jn and Pavol, who were born in today's Slovakia. Pavol's son, James Warhola, became a successful children's book illustrator.

In third grade, Warhol had chorea, a nervous system disease that causes involuntary movements of the extremities, which is believed to be a complication of scarlet fever and causes skin pigmentation blotchiness. He became a hypochondriac, developing a fear of hospitals and doctors. Often bed-ridden as a child, he became an outcast among his school-mates and bonded strongly with his mother. At times when he was confined to bed, he drew, listened to the radio and collected pictures of movie stars around his bed. Warhol later described this period as very important in the development of his personality, skill-set and preferences.

Early career

Warhol showed early artistic talent and studied commercial art at the School of Fine Arts at Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (now Carnegie Mellon University). In 1949, he moved to New York City and began a successful career in magazine illustration and advertising. During the 1950s, he gained fame for his whimsical ink drawings of shoe advertisements. These were done in a loose, blotted-ink style, and figured in some of his earliest showings at the Bodley Gallery in New York. With the concurrent rapid expansion of the record industry and the introduction of the vinyl record, Hi-Fi, and stereophonic recordings, RCA Records hired Warhol, along with another freelance artist, Sid Maurer, to design album covers and promotional materials.

Campbell's Soup I (1968)

1960s

His first one-man art-gallery exhibition as a fine artist was on July 9, 1962, in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles. The exhibition marked the West Coast debut of pop art. Andy Warhol's first New York solo Pop exhibit was hosted at Eleanor Ward's Stable Gallery November 6-24, 1962. The exhibit included the works Marilyn Diptych, 100 Soup Cans, 100 Coke Bottles and 100 Dollar Bills. At the Stable Gallery exhibit, the artist met for the first time John Giorno who would star in Warhol's first film, Sleep, in 1963.[citation needed]

It was during the 1960s that Warhol began to make paintings of iconic American products such as Campbell's Soup Cans and Coca-Cola bottles, as well as paintings of celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe, Elvis Presley, Troy Donahue, Muhammad Ali and Elizabeth Taylor. He founded "The Factory", his studio during these years, and gathered around himself a wide range of artists, writers, musicians, and underground celebrities. He began producing prints using the silkscreen method. His work became popular and controversial.

Among the imagery tackled by Warhol were dollar bills, celebrities and brand name products. He also used as imagery for his paintings newspaper headlines or photographs of mushroom clouds, electric chairs, and police dogs attacking civil rights protesters. Warhol also used Coca Cola bottles as subject matter for paintings. He had this to say about Coca Cola:

What's great about this country is that America started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same things as the poorest. You can be watching TV and see Coca Cola, and you know that the President drinks Coca Cola, Liz Taylor drinks Coca Cola, and just think, you can drink Coca Cola, too. A coke is a coke and no amount of money can get you a better coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking. All the cokes are the same and all the cokes are good. Liz Taylor knows it, the President knows it, the bum knows it, and you know it.

New York's Museum of Modern Art hosted a Symposium on pop art in December 1962 during which artists like Warhol were attacked for "capitulating" to consumerism. Critics were scandalized by Warhol's open embrace of market culture. This symposium set the tone for Warhol's reception. Throughout the decade it became more and more clear that there had been a profound change in the culture of the art world, and that Warhol was at the center of that shift.[citation needed]

Campbell's Tomato Juice Box (1964)

A pivotal event was the 1964 exhibit The American Supermarket, a show held in Paul Bianchini's Upper East Side gallery. The show was presented as a typical U.S. small supermarket environment, except that everything in it from the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc. was created by six prominent pop artists of the time, among them the controversial (and like-minded) Billy Apple, Mary Inman, and Robert Watts. Warhol's painting of a can of Campbell's soup cost $1,500 while each autographed can sold for $6. The exhibit was one of the first mass events that directly confronted the general public with both pop art and the perennial question of what art is (or of what is art and what is not).[citation needed]

As an advertisement illustrator in the 1950s, Warhol used assistants to increase his productivity. Collaboration would remain a defining (and controversial) aspect of his working methods throughout his career; in the 1960s, however, this was particularly true. One of the most important collaborators during this period was Gerard Malanga. Malanga assisted the artist with producing silkscreens, films, sculpture, and other works at "The Factory", Warhol's aluminum foil-and-silver-paint-lined studio on 47th Street (later moved to Broadway). Other members of Warhol's Factory crowd included Freddie Herko, Ondine, Ronald Tavel, Mary Woronov, Billy Name, and Brigid Berlin (from whom he apparently got the idea to tape-record his phone conversations).

During the '60s, Warhol also groomed a retinue of bohemian eccentrics upon whom he bestowed the designation "Superstars", including Edie Sedgwick, Viva, Ultra Violet, and Candy Darling. These people all participated in the Factory films, and some like Berlin remained friends with Warhol until his death. Important figures in the New York underground art/cinema world, such as writer John Giorno and film-maker Jack Smith, also appear in Warhol films of the 1960s, revealing Warhol's connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this period.

Attempted assassination

On June 3, 1968, Valerie Solanas shot Warhol and art critic and curator Mario Amaya at Warhol's studio. Before the shooting, Solanas had been a marginal figure in the Factory scene. She founded a "group" called S.C.U.M. (Society for Cutting Up Men) and authored the S.C.U.M. Manifesto, a separatist feminist attack on patriarchy. Over the years, Solanas' manifesto has found a following. Solanas appears in the 1968 Warhol film I, A Man. Earlier on the day of the attack, Solanas had been turned away from the Factory after asking for the return of a script she had given to Warhol. The script, apparently, had been misplaced.

Amaya received only minor injuries and was released from the hospital later the same day. Warhol however, was seriously wounded by the attack and barely survived (surgeons opened his chest and massaged his heart to help stimulate its movement again). He suffered physical effects for the rest of his life. The shooting had a profound effect on Warhol's life and art.

Solanas was arrested the day after the assault. By way of explanation, she said that "He had too much control over my life," following which she was eventually sentenced to three years under the control of the department of corrections. After the shooting, the Factory scene became much more tightly controlled, and for many this event brought the "Factory 60s" to an end. The shooting was mostly overshadowed in the media due to the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy two days later.

Warhol had this to say about the attack: "Before I was shot, I always thought that I was more half-there than all-there I always suspected that I was watching TV instead of living life. People sometimes say that the way things happen in movies is unreal, but actually it's the way things happen in life that's unreal. The movies make emotions look so strong and real, whereas when things really do happen to you, it's like watching television you don't feel anything. Right when I was being shot and ever since, I knew that I was watching television. The channels switch, but it's all television."

1970s

Andy Warhol and Jimmy Carter in 1977

Compared to the success and scandal of Warhol's work in the 1960s, the 1970s proved a much quieter decade, as Warhol became more entrepreneurial. According to Bob Colacello, Warhol devoted much of his time to rounding up new, rich patrons for portrait commissions including Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, his wife Empress Farah Pahlavi, his sister Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, Mick Jagger, Liza Minnelli, John Lennon, Diana Ross, Brigitte Bardot, and Michael Jackson. [citation needed] Warhol's famous portrait of Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong was created in 1973. He also founded, with Gerard Malanga, Interview magazine, and published The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (1975). An idea expressed in the book: "Making money is art, and working is art and good business is the best art."[cite this quote]

Warhol used to socialize at various nightspots in New York City, including Max's Kansas City; Serendipity 3; and, later in the '70s, Studio 54. He was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and a meticulous observer. Art critic Robert Hughes called him "the white mole of Union Square."

1980s

Warhol had a re-emergence of critical and financial success in the 1980s, partially due to his affiliation and friendships with a number of prolific younger artists, who were dominating the "bull market" of '80s New York art: Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, David Salle and other so-called Neo-Expressionists, as well as members of the Transavantgarde movement in Europe, including Francesco Clemente and Enzo Cucchi.

By this period, Warhol was being criticized for becoming merely a "business artist". In 1979, unfavorable reviews met his exhibits of portraits of 1970s personalities and celebrities, calling them superficial, facile and commercial, with no depth or indication of the significance of the subjects. This criticism was echoed for his 1980 exhibit of ten portraits at the Jewish Museum in New York, entitled Jewish Geniuses, which Warhol who exhibited no interest in Judaism or matters of interest to Jews had described in his diary as "They're going to sell." In hindsight, however, some critics have come to view Warhol's superficiality and commerciality as "the most brilliant mirror of our times," contending that "Warhol had captured something irresistible about the zeitgeist of American culture in the 1970s."

Warhol also had an appreciation for intense Hollywood glamour. He once said: "I love Los Angeles. I love Hollywood. They're so beautiful. Everything's plastic, but I love plastic. I want to be plastic."

Sexuality

Many people think of Warhol as "asexual" and merely a "voyeur"; however, it is now well established that he was homosexual (see biographers such as Victor Bockris, Bob Colacello, and art historian Richard Meyer). The question of how Warhol's sexuality influenced his work and shaped his relationship to the art world is a major subject of scholarship on the artist, and is an issue that Warhol himself addressed in interviews, in conversation with his contemporaries, and in his publications (e.g. Popism: The Warhol Sixties).

Throughout his career, Warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes. Many of his most famous works (portraits of Liza Minnelli, Judy Garland, and Elizabeth Taylor, and films like Blow Job, My Hustler, and Lonesome Cowboys) draw from gay underground culture and/or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire. Many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters. That said, some stories about Warhol's development as an artist revolved around the obstacle his sexuality initially presented as he tried to launch his career. The first works that he submitted to a gallery in the pursuit of a career as an artist were homoerotic drawings of male nudes. They were rejected for being too openly gay. In Popism, furthermore, the artist recalls a conversation with the film maker Emile de Antonio about the difficulty Warhol had being accepted socially by the then more famous (but closeted) gay artists Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg. De Antonio explained that Warhol was "too swish and that upsets them." In response to this, Warhol writes, "There was nothing I could say to that. It was all too true. So I decided I just wasn't going to care, because those were all the things that I didn't want to change anyway, that I didn't think I 'should' want to change... Other people could change their attitudes but not me". In exploring Warhol's biography, many turn to this period the late 1950s and early 1960s as a key moment in the development of his persona. Some have suggested that his frequent refusal to comment on his work, to speak about himself (confining himself in interviews to responses like "Um, No" and "Um, Yes", and often allowing others to speak for him) and even the evolution of his Pop style an be traced to the years when Warhol was first dismissed by the inner circles of the New York art world.

Religious beliefs

Images of Jesus from The Last Supper cycle (1986). Warhol made almost 100 variations on the theme, which the Guggenheim felt "indicates an almost obsessive investment in the subject matter."

Warhol was a practicing Byzantine Catholic. He regularly volunteered at homeless shelters in New York, particularly during the busier times of the year, and described himself as a religious person. Several of Warhol's later works depicted religious subjects, including two series, Details of Renaissance Paintings (1984) and The Last Supper (1986). In addition, a body of religious-themed works was found posthumously in his estate.

During his life, Warhol regularly attended Mass, and the priest at Warhol's church, Saint Vincent's, said that the artist went there almost daily. His art is noticeably influenced by the eastern Christian iconographic tradition which was so evident in his places of worship.

Warhol's brother has described the artist as "really religious, but he didn't want people to know about that because [it was] private." Despite the private nature of his faith, in Warhol's eulogy John Richardson depicted it as devout: "To my certain knowledge, he was responsible for at least one conversion. He took considerable pride in financing his nephew's studies for the priesthood"

Death

Warhol died in New York City at 6:32 a.m. on February 22, 1987. According to news reports, he had been making good recovery from a routine gallbladder surgery at New York Hospital before dying in his sleep from a sudden post-operative cardiac arrhythmia. Prior to his diagnosis and operation, Warhol delayed having his recurring gallbladder problems checked, as he was afraid to enter hospitals and see doctors. His family sued the hospital for inadequate care, saying that the arrhythmia was caused by improper care and water intoxication.

Warhol's grave at St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery

Warhol's body was taken back to Pittsburgh by his brothers for burial. The wake was at Thomas P. Kunsak Funeral Home and was an open-coffin ceremony. The coffin was a solid bronze casket with gold plated rails and white upholstery. Warhol was dressed in a black cashmere suit, a paisley tie, a platinum wig, and sunglasses. He was posed holding a small prayer book and a red rose. The funeral liturgy was held at the Holy Ghost Byzantine Catholic Church on Pittsburgh's North Side. The eulogy was given by Monsignor Peter Tay. Yoko Ono also made an appearance. The coffin was covered with white roses and asparagus ferns. After the liturgy, the coffin was driven to St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery in Bethel Park, a south suburb of Pittsburgh. At the grave, the priest said a brief prayer and sprinkled holy water on the casket. Before the coffin was lowered, Paige Powell dropped a copy of Interview magazine, an Interview t-shirt, and a bottle of the Estee Lauder perfume "Beautiful" into the grave. Warhol was buried next to his mother and father. Weeks later a memorial service was held in Manhattan for Warhol on April 1, 1987, at St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York.

Warhol's will dictated that his entire estate with the exception of a few modest legacies to family members would go to create a foundation dedicated to the "advancement of the visual arts". Warhol had so many possessions that it took Sotheby's nine days to auction his estate after his death; the auction grossed more than US$20 million. His total estate was worth considerably more, due in no small part to shrewd investments over the years.[citation needed]

In 1987, in accordance with Warhol's will, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts was founded. The Foundation not only serves as the official Estate of Andy Warhol, but also has a mission "to foster innovative artistic expression and the creative process" and is "focused primarily on supporting work of a challenging and often experimental nature."

The Artists Rights Society is the U.S. copyright representative for the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts for all Warhol works with the exception of Warhol film stills. The U.S. copyright representative for Warhol film stills is the Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh. Additionally, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts has agreements in place for its image archive. All digital images of Warhol are exclusively managed by Corbis, while all transparency images of Warhol are managed by Art Resource.

The Andy Warhol Foundation released its 20th Anniversary Annual Report as a three-volume set in 2007: Vol. I, 19872007; Vol. II, Grants & Exhibitions; and Vol. III, Legacy Program. The Foundation remains one of the largest grant-giving organizations for the visual arts in the U.S.

Works

Paintings

This section needs references that appear in reliable third-party publications. Primary sources or sources affiliated with the subject are generally not sufficient for a Wikipedia article. Please add more appropriate citations from reliable sources. (February 2009)

By the beginning of the 1960s, Warhol was a very successful commercial illustrator. His detailed and elegant drawings for I. Miller shoes were particularly popular. These illustrations consisted mainly of "blotted ink" drawings (or monoprints), a technique which he applied in much of his early art. Although many artists of this period worked in commercial art, most did so discreetly. Warhol was so successful, however, that his profile as an illustrator seemed to undermine his efforts to be taken seriously as an artist.

Pop Art was an experimental form that several artists were independently adopting; some of these pioneers, such as Roy Lichtenstein, would later become synonymous with the movement. Warhol, who would become famous as the "Pope of Pop", turned to this new style, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's palette. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, hand-painted with paint drips. Those drips emulated the style of successful abstract expressionists (such as Willem de Kooning). Warhol's first Pop Art paintings were displayed in April 1961, serving as the backdrop for New York Department Store Bronwit Teller's window display. This was the same stage his Pop Art contemporaries Jasper Johns, James Rosenquist and Robert Rauschenberg had also once graced. Eventually, Warhol pared his image vocabulary down to the icon itself to brand names, celebrities, dollar signs and removed all traces of the artist's "hand" in the production of his paintings.

To him, part of defining a niche was defining his subject matter. Cartoons were already being used by Lichtenstein, typography by Jasper Johns, and so on; Warhol wanted a distinguishing subject. His friends suggested he should paint the things he loved the most. In his signature way of taking things literally, for his first major exhibition he painted his famous cans of Campbell's Soup, which he claimed to have had for lunch for most of his life. The work sold for $10,000 at an auction on November 17, 1971, at Sotheby's New York a minimal amount for the artist whose paintings sell for over $6 million more recently.

He loved celebrities, so he painted them as well. From these beginnings he developed his later style and subjects. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the hand-made from the artistic process. Warhol frequently used silk-screening; his later drawings were traced from slide projections. At the height of his fame as a painter, Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, following his directions to make different versions and variations.

In 1979, Warhol was commissioned by BMW to paint a Group 4 race version of the then elite supercar BMW M1 for the fourth installment in the BMW Art Car Project. Unlike the three artists before him, Warhol declined the use of a small scale practice model, instead opting to immediately paint directly onto the full scale automobile. It was indicated that Warhol spent only a total of 23 minutes to paint the entire car.

Warhol produced both comic and serious works; his subject could be a soup can or an electric chair. Warhol used the same techniques silkscreens, reproduced serially, and often painted with bright colors whether he painted celebrities, everyday objects, or images of suicide, car crashes, and disasters, as in the 196263 Death and Disaster series. The Death and Disaster paintings (such as Red Car Crash, Purple Jumping Man, and Orange Disaster) transform personal tragedies into public spectacles, and signal the use of images of disaster in the then evolving mass media.

The unifying element in Warhol's work is his deadpan Keatonesque style artistically and personally affectless. This was mirrored by Warhol's own demeanor, as he often played "dumb" to the media, and refused to explain his work. The artist was famous for having said that all you need to know about him and his works is already there, "Just look at the surface of my paintings and films and me, and there I am. There's nothing behind it."

His Rorschach inkblots are intended as pop comments on art and what art could be. His cow wallpaper (literally, wallpaper with a cow motif) and his oxidation paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that was then oxidized with urine) are also noteworthy in this context. Equally noteworthy is the way these works and their means of production mirrored the atmosphere at Andy's New York "Factory". Biographer Bob Colacello provides some details on Andy's "piss paintings":

Victor... was Andy's ghost pisser on the Oxidations. He would come to the Factory to urinate on canvases that had already been primed with copper-based paint by Andy or Ronnie Cutrone, a second ghost pisser much appreciated by Andy, who said that the vitamin B that Ronnie took made a prettier color when the acid in the urine turned the copper green. Did Andy ever use his own urine? My diary shows that when he first began the series, in December 1977, he did, and there were many others: boys who'd come to lunch and drink too much wine, and find it funny or even flattering to be asked to help Andy 'paint.' Andy always had a little extra bounce in his walk as he led them to his studio...

Warhol's first portrait of Basquiat (1982) is a black photosilkscreen over an oxidized copper "piss painting".

After many years of silkscreen, oxidation, photography, etc., Warhol returned to painting with a brush in hand in a series of over 50 large collaborative works done with Jean-Michel Basquiat between 1984 and 1986. These were influential for his later work.

Warhol's The Last Supper cycle was his last series, possibly his largest and seen by some as "arguably his greatest". It is also the largest series of religious works by any U.S. artist.

Films

Warhol worked across a wide range of media painting, photography, drawing, and sculpture. In addition, he was a highly prolific filmmaker. Between 1963 and 1968, he made more than 60 films , plus some 500 short black-and-white "screen test" portraits of Factory visitors. One of his most famous films, Sleep, monitors poet John Giorno sleeping for six hours. The 35-minute film Blow Job is one continuous shot of the face of DeVeren Bookwalter supposedly receiving oral sex from filmmaker Willard Maas, although the camera never tilts down to see this. Another, Empire (1964), consists of eight hours of footage of the Empire State Building in New York City at dusk. The film Eat consists of a man eating a mushroom for 45 minutes. Warhol attended the 1962 premiere of the static composition by LaMonte Young called Trio for Strings and subsequently created his famous series of static films including Kiss, Eat, and Sleep (for which Young initially was commissioned to provide music). Uwe Husslein cites filmmaker Jonas Mekas, who accompanied Warhol to the Trio premiere, and who claims Warhol's static films were directly inspired by the performance.

Batman Dracula is a 1964 film that was produced and directed by Warhol, without the permission of DC Comics. It was screened only at his art exhibits. A fan of the Batman series, Warhol's movie was an "homage" to the series, and is considered the first appearance of a blatantly campy Batman. The film was until recently thought to have been lost, until scenes from the picture were shown at some length in the 2006 documentary Jack Smith and the Destruction of Atlantis.

Warhol's 1965 film Vinyl is an adaptation of Anthony Burgess' popular dystopian novel A Clockwork Orange. Others record improvised encounters between Factory regulars such as Brigid Berlin, Viva, Edie Sedgwick, Candy Darling, Holly Woodlawn, Ondine, Nico, and Jackie Curtis. Legendary underground artist Jack Smith appears in the film Camp.

His most popular and critically successful film was Chelsea Girls (1966). The film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two 16 mm-films being projected simultaneously, with two different stories being shown in tandem. From the projection booth, the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that "story" while it was lowered for the other. The multiplication of images evoked Warhol's seminal silk-screen works of the early 1960s.

Other important films include Bike Boy, My Hustler, and Lonesome Cowboys, a raunchy pseudo-western. These and other titles document gay underground and camp culture, and continue to feature prominently in scholarship about sexuality and art. Blue Movie a film in which Warhol superstar Viva makes love and fools around in bed with a man for 33 minutes of the film's playing-time was Warhol's last film as director. The film was at the time scandalous for its frank approach to a sexual encounter. For many years Viva refused to allow it to be screened. It was publicly screened in New York in 2005 for the first time in over thirty years.

After his June 3, 1968, shooting, a reclusive Warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking. His acolyte and assistant director, Paul Morrissey, took over the film-making chores for the Factory collective, steering Warhol-branded cinema towards more mainstream, narrative-based, B-movie exploitation fare with Flesh, Trash, and Heat. All of these films, including the later Andy Warhol's Dracula and Andy Warhol's Frankenstein, were far more mainstream than anything Warhol as a director had attempted. These latter "Warhol" films starred Joe Dallesandro more of a Morrissey star than a true Warhol superstar.

In the early '70s, most of the films directed by Warhol were pulled out of circulation by Warhol and the people around him who ran his business. After Warhol's death, the films were slowly restored by the Whitney Museum and are occasionally projected at museums and film festivals. Few of the Warhol-directed films are available on video or DVD.

Factory in New York

Factory: 1342 Lexington Avenue (the first Factory)

The Factory: 231 East 47th street 1963-1967 (the building no longer exists)

Factory: 33 Union Square 1967-1973 (Decker Building)

Factory: 860 Broadway (near 33 Union Square) 1973-1984 (the building has now been completely remodeled and was for a time (2000-2001) the headquarters of the dot-com consultancy Scient)

Factory: 22 East 33rd Street 1984-1987 (the building no longer exists)

Home: 1342 Lexington Avenue

Home: 57 East 66th street (Warhol's last home)

Last personal studio: 158 Madison Avenue

Filmography

Main article: Andy Warhol filmography

Music

In the mid 1960s, Warhol adopted the band The Velvet Underground, making them a crucial element of the Exploding Plastic Inevitable multimedia performance art show. Warhol, with Paul Morrissey, acted as the band's manager, introducing them to Nico (who would perform with the band at Warhol's request). In 1966 he "produced" their first album The Velvet Underground & Nico, as well as providing its album art. His actual participation in the album's production amounted to simply paying for the studio time. After the band's first album, Warhol and band leader Lou Reed started to disagree more about the direction the band should take, and their artistic friendship ended.[citation needed]

Warhol designed many album covers for various artists starting with the photographic cover of John Wallowitch's debut album, This Is John Wallowitch!!! (1964). Warhol designed the cover art for The Rolling Stones albums Sticky Fingers (1971) and Love You Live (1977), and the John Cale album Honi Soit in 1981. In 1975, Warhol was commissioned to do several portraits of the band's frontman Mick Jagger while in 1982, he designed the album cover for the Diana Ross album Silk Electric.[citation needed] One of his last works was a portrait of Aretha Franklin for the cover of her 1986 gold album Aretha, which was done in the style of the Reigning Queens series he had completed the year before.

Warhol was also friendly with many recording artists, including Deborah Harry, Grace Jones, Diana Ross and John Lennon - he designed the cover to Lennon's 1986 posthumously released Menlove Ave.. Warhol also appeared as a bartender in The Cars' music video for their single "Hello Again", and Curiosity Killed The Cat's video for their "Misfit" single (both videos, and others, were produced by Warhol's video production company).[citation needed] Warhol featured in Grace Jones' music video for "I'm Not Perfect (But I'm Perfect for You)".

Warhol strongly influenced the New Wave/punk rock band Devo, as well as David Bowie. Bowie recorded a song called "Andy Warhol" for his 1971 album Hunky Dory. Lou Reed wrote the song "Andy's Chest", about Valerie Solanas, the woman who shot Warhol, in 1968. He recorded it with the Velvet Underground, but this version wasn't officially released until the VU album appeared in 1985. He recorded a new version for his 1972 solo album Transformer, produced by Bowie and Mick Ronson.[citation needed]

Cover of copy no. 18 of 25 Cats Name [sic] Sam and One Blue Pussy by Andy Warhol given in 1954 to Edgar de Evia and Robert Denning when the author was a guest in their home in the Rhinelander Mansion.[citation needed]

Books and print

Beginning in the early 1950s, Warhol produced several unbound portfolios of his work.

The first of several bound self-published books by Warhol was 25 Cats Name Sam and One Blue Pussy, printed in 1954 by Seymour Berlin on Arches brand watermarked paper using his blotted line technique for the lithographs. The original edition was limited to 190 numbered, hand colored copies, using Dr. Martin's ink washes. Most of these were given by Warhol as gifts to clients and friends. Copy #4, inscribed "Jerry" on the front cover and given to Geraldine Stutz, was used for a facsimile printing in 1987 and the original was auctioned in May 2006 for US $35,000 by Doyle New York.

Other self-published books by Warhol include:

A Gold Book

Wild Raspberries

Holy Cats

After gaining fame, Warhol "wrote" several books that were commercially published:

a, A Novel (1968, ISBN 0-8021-3553-6) is a literal transcription containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling of audio recordings of Ondine and several of Andy Warhol's friends hanging out at the Factory, talking, going out.[citation needed]

The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (From A to B & Back Again) (1975, ISBN 0-15-671720-4) according to Pat Hackett's introduction to The Andy Warhol Diaries, Pat Hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations, sometimes (when Warhol was traveling) using audio cassettes that Andy Warhol gave her. Said cassettes contained conversations with Brigid Berlin (also known as Brigid Polk) and former Interview magazine editor Bob Colacello.[citation needed]

Popism: The Warhol Sixties (1980, ISBN 0-15-672960-1), authored by Warhol and Pat Hackett is a retrospective view of the sixties and the role of Pop Art.

The Andy Warhol Diaries (1989, ISBN 0-446-39138-7), edited by Pat Hackett, is a diary dictated by Warhol to Hackett in daily phone conversations. Warhol started the diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited, although it soon evolved to include his personal and cultural observations.

Warhol created the fashion magazine Interview that is still published today. The loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother, Julia Warhola, who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces.

Other media

As stated, although Andy Warhol is most known for his paintings and films, he has authored works in many different media.

Drawing: Warhol started his career as a commercial illustrator, producing drawings in "blotted-ink" style for advertisements and magazine articles. Best known of these early works are his drawings of shoes. Some of his personal drawings were self-published in small booklets, such as Yum, Yum, Yum (about food), Ho, Ho, Ho (about Christmas) and (of course) Shoes, Shoes, Shoes. His most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably A Gold Book, compiled of sensitive drawings of young men. A Gold Book is so named because of the gold leaf that decorates its pages.

Sculpture: Warhol's most famous sculpture is probably his Brillo Boxes, silkscreened ink on wood replicas of Brillo soap pad boxes (designed by James Harvey), part of a series of "grocery carton" sculptures that also included Heinz ketchup and Campbell's tomato juice cases. Other famous works include the Silver Clouds helium filled, silver mylar, pillow-shaped balloons. A Silver Cloud was included in the traveling exhibition Air Art (1968-69) curated by Willoughby Sharp. Clouds was also adapted by Warhol for avant-garde choreographer Merce Cunningham's dance piece RainForest (1968).

Audio: At one point Warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went, taping everything everybody said and did. He referred to this device as his "wife". Some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work. Another audio-work of Warhol's was his "Invisible Sculpture", a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room. Warhol's cooperation with the musicians of The Velvet Underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer.[citation needed]

Time Capsules: In 1973, Warhol began saving ephemera from his daily life correspondence, newspapers, souvenirs, childhood objects, even used plane tickets and food which was sealed in plain cardboard boxes dubbed Time Capsules. By the time of his death, the collection grew to include 600, individually dated "capsules". The boxes are now housed at the Andy Warhol Museum.

Television: Andy Warhol dreamed of a television show that he wanted to call The Nothing Special, a special about his favorite subject: Nothing. Later in his career he did create two cable television shows, Andy Warhol's TV in 1982 and Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes (based on his famous "fifteen minutes of fame" quotation) for MTV in 1986. Besides his own shows he regularly made guest appearances on other programs, including The Love Boat wherein a Midwestern wife (Marion Ross) fears Andy Warhol will reveal to her husband (Tom Bosley, who starred alongside Ross in sitcom Happy Days) her secret past as a Warhol superstar named Marina del Rey. Warhol also produced a TV commercial for Schrafft's Restaurants in New York City, for an ice cream dessert appropriately titled the "Underground Sundae".

Fashion: Warhol is quoted for having said: "I'd rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall, than put a painting, wouldn't you?"[cite this quote] One of his most well-known Superstars, Edie Sedgwick, aspired to be a fashion designer, and his good friend Halston was a famous one. Warhol's work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses, a short sub-career as a catwalk-model and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion (shoes) as a subject.[citation needed]

Performance Art: Warhol and his friends staged theatrical multimedia happenings at parties and public venues, combining music, film, slide projections and even Gerard Malanga in an S&M outfit cracking a whip. The Exploding Plastic Inevitable in 1966 was the culmination of this area of his work.

Theater: Andy Warhol's PORK opened on May 5, 1971 at LaMama theater in New York for a two week run and was brought to the Roundhouse in London for a longer run in August, 1971. Pork was based on tape-recorded conversations between Brigin Berlin and Andy during which Brigid would play for Andy tapes she had made of phone conversations between herself and her mother, socialite Honey Berlin. The play featured Jayne County as "Vulva" and Cherry Vanilla as "Amanda Pork".[citation needed] In 1974, Andy Warhol also produced the stage musical Man On The Moon, which was written by John Phillips of the Mamas and the Papas.

Photography: To produce his silkscreens, Warhol made photographs or had them made by his friends and assistants. These pictures were mostly taken with a specific model of Polaroid camera that Polaroid kept in production especially for Warhol. This photographic approach to painting and his snapshot method of taking pictures has had a great effect on artistic photography. Warhol was an accomplished photographer, and took an enormous amount of photographs of Factory visitors, friends.[citation needed]

Computer: Warhol used Amiga computers to generate digital art, which he helped design and build with Amiga, Inc. He also displayed the difference between slow fill and fast fill on live TV with Debbie Harry as a model. (video)

Producer and product

Warhol had assistants in producing his paintings. This is also true of his film-making and commercial enterprises.[citation needed]

He founded the gossip magazine Interview, a stage for celebrities he "endorsed" and a business staffed by his friends. He collaborated with others on all of his books (some of which were written with Pat Hackett.) He adopted the young painter Jean-Michel Basquiat, and the band The Velvet Underground, presenting them to the public as his latest interest, and collaborating with them. One might even say that he produced people (as in the Warholian "Superstar" and the Warholian portrait). He endorsed products, appeared in commercials, and made frequent celebrity guest appearances on television shows and in films (he appeared in everything from Love Boat to Saturday Night Live and the Richard Pryor movie, Dynamite Chicken).[citation needed]

In this respect Warhol was a fan of "Art Business" and "Business Art" he, in fact, wrote about his interest in thinking about art as business in The Philosophy of Andy Warhol from A to B and Back Again.[citation needed]

Dedicated museums

Two museums are dedicated to Andy Warhol. The Andy Warhol Museum, one of the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, is located at 117 Sandusky Street in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is the largest American art museum dedicated to a single artist, holding more than 12,000 works by the artist.[citation needed]

The other museum is the Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art, established in 1991 by Andy's brother John Warhola, the Slovak Ministry of Culture, and the Warhol Foundation in New York. It is located in the small town of Medzilaborce, Slovakia. Andy's parents and his two brothers were born 15 kilometres away in the village of Mikov. The museum houses several originals donated mainly by the Andy Warhol Foundation in New York and also personal items donated by Warhol's relatives.[citation needed]

Movies about Warhol

Dramatic portrayals

Warhol (right) with director Ulli Lommel on the set of 1979's Cocaine Cowboys, in which Warhol appeared as himself

In 1979, Warhol appeared as himself in the film Cocaine Cowboys.

After his passing, Warhol was portrayed by Crispin Glover in Oliver Stone's film The Doors (1991), by David Bowie in Basquiat, a film by Julian Schnabel, and by Jared Harris in the film I Shot Andy Warhol directed by Mary Harron (1996). Warhol appears as a character in Michael Daugherty's 1997 opera Jackie O. Actor Mark Bringleson makes a brief cameo as Warhol in Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery (1997). Many films by avant-garde cineast Jonas Mekas have caught the moments of Andy's life. Sean Gregory Sullivan depicted Warhol in the 1998 film 54. Guy Pearce portrayed Warhol in the 2007 film, Factory Girl, about Edie Sedgwick's life. Actor Greg Travis portrays Warhol in a brief scene from the 2009 film Watchmen.

Gus Van Sant was planning a version of Warhol's life with River Phoenix in the lead role just before Phoenix's death in 1993.

Documentaries

The 2001 documentary, Absolut Warhola was produced by Polish director Stanislaw Mucha, featuring Warhol's parents' family and hometown in Slovakia.

Andy Warhol: A Documentary Film is a reverential four-hour 2006 movie by Ric Burns.

Andy Warhol: Double Denied is a 52 minute movie by lan Yentob about the difficulties in authenticating Warhol's work: http://www.myandywarhol.eu/videos/videos1.asp

Potential of Marine System Biomass Cogeneration

1. Introduction

Green house gas (GHG) pollution is linked to energy source. Large amount of pollution affecting air quality is prone by reckless industrial development. For years, many think that everything that run into the trio of nature, the atmosphere, ocean and soil is infinite. The atmosphere and the ocean that is providing us source of freshening, winds and current are far more vulnerable to polluting activities from manmade energy sources that have run off into them too many poisons that the air, the ocean and land may cease to serve more purpose if care is not taking to prevent pollution affluence. Human activities are altering the atmosphere, and the planet is warming. It is now clear that the costs of inaction are far greater than the costs of action. Aversion of catastrophic impacts can be achieved by moving rapidly to transform the global energy system.

Sustainability requirement that can be solved through energy conservation (cf. IPCC 2007: 13) are energy and associated efficiency, development, environment, poverty. Stakeholder from government's consumers, industry transportation, buildings, product designs (equipment networks and infrastructures) must participate in the decision work for sustainable system. Recently the marine industry is getting the following compliance pressure regarding environmental issues related to emission to air under IMO MARPOL Annex 6. A world without port means a lot to economy transfer of goods, availability of ships and many things. Large volume of hinterland transportation activities import tells a lot about intolerant to air quality in port area. Adopting new energy system will make a lot of difference large number of people residing and working in the port. Most port facilities are powered by diesel plant. Integrating hybrid of hydrogen and solar into the existing system will be a good way for the port community to adapt to new emerging clean energy concept [1, 2].

This paper discuss available marine environmental issues, source of energy today, evolution of alternative energy due to the needs of the time and the barrier of storage requirement, system matching of hybrid design feasibility, regulations consideration and environmental stewardship. The paper also discusses holistic assessment requirement, stochastic evaluation, using system based doctrine, recycling and integrated approach to produce energy. With hope to contribute to the ongoing strives towards reducing green house gases, ozone gas depletion agents and depletion of oxygen for safety of the planet in order to sustain it for the right of future generation.

2. Energy, environment and sustainable development

Since the discovery of fire, and the harnessing of animal power, mankind has captured and used energy in various forms for different purposes. This include the use of animal for transportation, use of fire, fuelled by wood, biomass, waste for cooking, heating, the melting of metals, windmills, waterwheels and animals to produce mechanical work. Extensive reliance on energy started during industrial revolution. For years there has been increased understanding of the environmental effects of burning fossil fuels has led to stringent international agreements, policies and legislation regarding the control of the harmful emissions related to their use. Despite this knowledge, global energy consumption continues to increase due to rapid population growth and increased global industrialization. In order to meet the emission target, various measures must be taken, greater awareness of energy efficiency among domestic and industrial users throughout the world will be required, and domestic, commercial and industrial buildings, industrial processes, and vehicles will need to be designed to keep energy use at a minimum. Figure1 shows that the use of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) accounted continue to increase]. Figure 2 shows the contribution of total energy consumption in the by global region. And Figure 3 show natural gas consumption [2, 3].

. Current use of renewable energy

Most renewable energy development and supply are in small-scale, particularly on islands and in remote areas, where the import of energy sources through transport, pipeline or electricity grid is difficult or expensive. Individual buildings, industries and farms are also looking to the possibility of energy self-sufficiency to reduce fuel bills, and make good use of waste materials which are becoming increasingly difficult and expensive to dispose of Various studies have been carried out into the extensive use of new and renewable resources, to generate electricity, on a small scale, for rural communities, grid-isolated islands and individual farms. Recent studies focus on:

Security of supply: where consideration is given to intermittent sources, demand and supply must be as well matched as possible, and this is generally a function of climate. Available supply sources should be considered in order to find the best possible correlation between demand and supply.
Hybrid with conventional system: where energy limited sources used as spinning reserve for times when the intermittent supply does not meet the demand. If this type of spinning reserve is not available, the need for adequate electricity storage was shown to be an important consideration, especially in smaller scale projects.

3.1 Emerging renewable energy system

In order to provide a reliable electricity supply, reduce energy wastage, and enable the energy requirements for heat and transport to be met, the outputs of these intermittent sources may be supplemented by various means. These may include the use of storage devices and the use of biomass and waste materials in engines, turbines and fuel cells for the production of electricity and heat, in vehicles for transportation, or in heating supply or storage systems. The integration and control strategies for all of these components must be carefully considered and implemented, and this complexity has been seen as a barrier to renewable energy system deployment. There are many possible supply combinations that can be employed, and the optimum combination for a given area depends on many factors. The balances being considered can be complex, and this highlights the need for a decision support framework through which the relative merits of many different scenarios and control strategies for a chosen area can be quickly and easily analyzed [4,5].

Where substantial amounts of intermittent sources are used in a system, it is useful to have an outlet for excess electricity, in order to avoid wastage. The electricity stored, using various means, depending on the scale of storage required can be available for use at times when there is not enough being generated to meet demand. The sizing and type of storage system required depends on the relationship between the supply and demand profiles. For excess amount electricity produced this could be used to make hydrogen via the electrolysis of water. This hydrogen could then be stored, used in heaters or converted back into electricity via a fuel cell later as required. Using excess electricity, this hydrogen could be produced centrally and piped to for port or produced at vehicle filling stations for haulage, or at individual facilities in the port. [6,7].

4. Energy consumption, demand and supply

Energy demand for port work is supply from grids which are well established in most developed world. The method and sitting of generating conventional energy and renewable energy determine system configuration. Hierarchy systems that can be deduced from these two variables are:

Limited capacity energy: This includes traditional thermal plants coal fired, gas fired, oilfired and nuclear power plants, which supply almost all of the electricity to the national grid in. The amount of electricity that can be generated is limited by the physical capacity of the plant, time for maintenance and unplanned outages.
Limited energy plant: they are Renewable Energy Generators plant that are limited by the amount of energy or fuel available to them at a certain time from a certain area (e.g. rainfall, waste, seasonal energy crop yields) and cannot always run at their rated capacity.
Intermittent energy plant: recent year has seen increased hybrid generators. Growing distributed renewable generating plants has implications for the organisation of the electricity supply network. Interconnectivity network electrical system configuration. For centralized system it is better to have minor generators throughout the network that will allow many smaller areas of that network to become mainly self sufficient, with the grid stand as backup.

Fuel cell powered engine can run on pure hydrogen, producing clean water as the only emission. Biodiesel can be used directly in a diesel engine with little or no modifications, and burns much more cleanly and thoroughly than diesel, giving a substantial reduction in unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter. The main barriers to the implementation of alternative fuels is the requirement for a choice of fuel at a national level, the necessity to create a suitable refuelling infrastructure, the length of time it will take to replace or convert existing vehicles, and the need for a strong public incentive to change[3, 7, 8]..

4.1 Biomass demand and supply

5. Bioenergy

The 21st century is becoming age of recycling where a lots of emphasize is placed on reducing waste and reuse of material to curb current environmental problems, maximizing use of depleting natural resources and conserve energy. Modern day sustainable use and management of resource recommend incorporating recycling culture in human ways and the use of modest process. Biomass is not left behind in this. The use of biomass energy resource derived from the carbonaceous waste of various natural and human activities to produce electricity is becoming popular. Biomass is considered one of the clean, more efficient and stable means of power generation. Enormous being generated from marine system make it imperative for marine industry to tap this new evolving green technology to employ mobile based micro generation biomass for mobile for marine energy system.

Biomass remains potential renewable energy contributor to net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and offsetting of CO2 from fossil generation. The current method of generating biomass power is biomass fired boilers and Rankine steam turbines, recent research work in developing sustainable and economic biomass focus on high-pressure supercritical steam cycles. It uses feedstock supply system, and conversion of biomass to a low or medium Btu gas that can be fired in combustion turbine cycles. It result in efficiencies of one-and-a-half times that of a simple steam turbine. Biofuels has potential to influence marine industry, and it as become importance for ship designers and ship owners to accept their influence on the world fleet of the future. Especially the micro generation concept with co generation for cargo and fuel can be a good biomass system for ship. And the waste being dumped by ships in port can be use to power land based and coastal infrastructure.

This paper discuss review of conceptual work, trend, sociopolitical driver, economic, development, risk approach and future of biomass with hope to bring awareness to local, national and multinational bodies making to adopt biofuels policies. The maritime industry is always slow to adopt new technology. The paper direct awareness call to maritime multidisciplinary expertise in regulation, economics, engineering, vessel design and operation to break the nity gritty barrier. Time has come for the shipping industry to take advantage of growing tide to tap benefit promised by use of waste to power generation for marine system.

5.1 Biomass developmental trend

The current world biofuels market is focused on: Bioethanol blended into fossil motor gasoline (petrol) or used directly and biodiesel or Fatty Acid Methyl Ester diesel blended into fossil diesel. The Fischer-Tropsch model involves catalyzed chemical reaction to produce a synthetic petroleum substitute, typically from coal, natural gas or biomass. It is used to runs diesel engines and some aircraft engines. The use as synthetic biofuel lubrication oil or aid synthetic fuel from waste seems promising and negates risk posed by food based biomass. Oil product and chemical tankers being constructed now are likely to benefit from the use of biomass. However use on gasoline engines ignites the vapors at much higher temperatures pose limitation to inland water craft as more oxide of nitrogen can be released to the atmosphere [10, 11].

5.1.1 Biomass developmental trend spillage to shipping

Just like tanker revolution influence on ship type, demand for biomass will bring capacity, bio - material change from source to production area to the point of use. Technological, environmental change will also require ships of different configuration, size and tank coating type as well as impact on the tonne mile demand. Recently biofuel is driving a new technology worldwide; the use of biofuels for cars and public vehicles has grown significantly. Effect on shipping is likely to be followed by shipping of large scale growth on exports and seaborne trade of biomass product from key exporting regions in order to balance supply and demand. With excess capacity waiting for source material it seems inevitable that shipping demand will increase.

5.2 Classification of biomass

3.1 According to generation types

Biomass generation and growing trend can be classified into 3 generation types:

First generation biofuels, are made from food like from sugar or starch, vegetable oil or animal fats to produce biodiesel.

Second generation biofuels, are waste derived biomass from agricultural and forestry, fast-growing grasses and trees specially grown as so-called "energy crops".

Third generation biofuels, use green fuels like algae biofuel made from energy and biomass crops that have been designed in such a way that their s tructure or properties conform to the requirements of a particular bioconversion process.

5.2.1 According to sources types

North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC) region supply has classified biofuel into the following four types: agricultural residues, energy crops, forestry residues, and urban wood waste and mill residues. A brief description of each type of biomass is provided below:

Agricultural residues from the remaining stalks and biomass material left on the ground can be collected and used for energy generation purposes this include residues of wheat straw
Energy crops are produced solely or primarily for use as feedstocks in energy generation processes. Energy crops includes hybrid, switch grassgrown on idled, or in pasture. The most important agricultural commodity crops being planted in the United States are corn, wheat, and soybeans represent about 70 percent of total cropland harvested. Thus, this is not encouraged to prevent food scarcity.
Forestry residues are composed of logging residues, rough rotten salvageable dead wood, and excess small pole trees.
Urban wood, waste and mill residues are waste woods from manufacturing operations that would otherwise be landfilled. The urban wood waste and mill residue category includes primary mill residues and urban wood such as pallets, construction waste, and demolition debris, which are not otherwise useful.

Biomass for electricity generation is treated in four ways in NEMS:

i. new dedicated biomass or biomass gasification,

ii. existing and new plants that co-fire biomass with coal,

iii. existing plants that combust biomass directly in an open-loop process,and

iv. biomass use in industrial cogeneration applications. Existing biomass plants are accounted for using information such as on-line years, efficiencies, heat rates, and retirement dates, obtained through EIA surveys of the electricity generation sector.

6.0 Choice of conventional power system

5.2.1 Internal Combustion and Diesel Engines: Two common load following generation technologies involve the use of diesel in compression ignition engines (diesel engines), and natural gas in internal combustion engines (ICEs). Both of these engine types may also be run on sustainable fuels derived from biomass and waste, with diesel engines running on biodiesel, pyrolysis oil, or vegetable oil, and ICEs running on biogas, ethanol or methanol and this requires little or no modification. Diesel engine generating sets with rated outputs from 50 kWe to 10 MWe, and ICE generating sets with rated outputs of between 100 kWe and 2 MWe are available. Figure 6 shows diesel engine retrofit option towards reducing emission. Typically in the order of 2:1, and electrical efficiencies at full load are around 25 to 30%, again varying with partial load. Figure 6 shows a typical internal combustion engine.

Figure 6: Typical steam plant unit system

5.2.2 Steam Turbines: Steam turbines may be used for larger applications (between 1 and 1000 MW). These use an external boiler to raise steam, which may be fuelled by any

type of solid, liquid or gaseous fuel desired..This steam is then expanded across turbine blades to produce rotary motion, and, when coupled with a generator, electricity]. Again, waste heat may be recovered for use. Figure 7 shows typical staem engine system Electrical efficiencies at full load can range from 15 to 50%, depending on the complexity of design. This means that heat to electricity ratios can vary from 1:1 to 5:1. This generation method is particularly suited to the use of large

Figure 7: Steam engine system

quantities of solid waste or biomass, provided suitable boilers are used, though start-up times are slow.

5.2.3 Stirling Engines: A Stirling engine is an external combustion engine, where combustion of the fuel does not take place inside the engine, but in an external boiler. Mechanical work is derived from the pressure changes that result from the cyclic heating and cooling of an enclosed working gas. Heat from any source may be used to run a Stirling engine, including concentrated solar rays, and waste heat but only fuelled Stirling engines will be considered here. This type of engine has many advantages over other engines and turbines as it allows the use of fuels that are hard to process, and it has a fairly simple design, which makes it suitable for small-scale applications, gives the plant a lower capital cost and reduces maintenance costs. Interest in Stirling engines is beginning to re-emerge due to increased interest in biofuel use. Currently available Stirling engine generating set outputs vary from 1 kWe to 200kWe, although larger engines are feasible. Figure 8 shows typical gas turbine engine.

7. Choice of cogeneration alternative energy

7.1 Fuel Cells: The principle of the fuel cell was discovered over 150 years ago. NASA has improved the system in their emission free operation for spacecraft. Recent years has also seen improvement in vehicles, stationary and portable applications. As a result of this increased interest, stationary power plants from 200W to 2 MW are now commercially available, with efficiencies ranging from 30 to 50% and heat to electricity ratios from 0.5:1 to 2:1. Fuel cell re load follower energy, the efficiency of a fuel cell typically increases at lower loadings. Fuel cell system also has fast response. This make them well suited to load following and transport applications. Fuel cell is advanced alternative energy technology with electrochemical conversion of fuel directly into electricity without intermediate stage, the combustion of fuel; hence by-pass the restriction of second law of thermodynamic .the basic fuel supply in the fuel cell systems is hydrogen and carbon dioxide. [9,10,11] .

Phosphoric acid fuel cell distribution: Fuel cell can be distributed directly through the following ways:

Direct supply to residential and commercial facilities through pipelines Modular cell that can be stack according to power need
Building hydrogen fuel cell power plant in remote location and distribute energy through power grid.

Comparing the efficiency of fuel cell to other source of alternative energy source, fuel cell is the most promising and economical source that guarantee future replacement of fossil fuel. However efficiency maximization of fuel cell power plant remains important issue that needs consideration for its commercialization. As a result the following are important consideration for efficient fuel cell power plant efficiency calculation can be done through the following formula fi9 shows a typical fuel cell power system:

Advantages of fuel cell include size, weigh, flexibility, efficiency, safety, topography, cleanliness. Mostly use as catalyst in PAFC, and however recovery of platinum from worn -out cell can reduce the cost and market of the use of PACF economical. It has cost advantage over conventional fossil fuel energy and alternative energy. Disadvantages of fuel cell are adaptation, training, and cost of disposal. Fuel cell has found application in transportation, commercial facility, residential faculty, space craft and battery. Figure 9 shows a typical arrangement fuel cell hybrid power configuration.

7.2 Solar energy system: History and human existent has proved that the sun is the source of all existing energy on earth. From plant photosynthesis to formation of biomass earth fossil fuel including oil and coal, to the generation of wind and hydrogen power, the sun has his mark on almost every planetary system. For decades, people have worked to generate renewable and cost saving solar energy. But little has been achieved to get a lot out f its abundant supply of sun light. Harnessing energy from sun require production, distribution, control and consumer utilization at low cost. Risk work for the system should address the back drop and hybrid system alternative energy system that can be installing as auxiliary for synchronization through automatic control system that activate storage supply whenever supply is approaching the minimum setup limit. Prior to installing solar, it is important to collect, analyze data and information to determined initial condition necessary to start the project and come with acceptable design. Such data should be use for simulation and construction of prototype model of the system that include existing system, central receiver, collectors, power conversion, control system, sunlight storage, solar radiation to supply a solar system to convert sunlight to electricity and distribute through existing channel.

8. Hybrid system

With a focus on developing applications for clean, renewable, non-fossil fuel, energy systems. Our final emphasis is on maritime related activities, however, as marine engineers we are devoted to promoting all types of alternative & sustainable energy technologies.Various types of engine, turbine and fuel cell may be run on a variety of fuels for combined heat and power production. Hybrid system can provide control over power needs, green and sustainable energy that delivers a price that is acceptable and competitive. The power plants can be located where it is needed less high power lines are required, not only reducing costs but assisting health by reducing magnetic fields that people are so worried about, Global warming is addressed d by direct action by providing power that does not release any emissions or discharges of any kind. The technology associated with the design, manufacture and operation of marine equipment is changing rapidly. The traditional manner in which regulatory requirements for marine electrical power supply systems have developed, based largely on incidents and failures, is no longer acceptable. Figure 10 show a typical hybrid power arrangement for solar hydrogen and conventional power. Fifure 11 ,, 12, and 13 can be hybrid to the same sstem to provide integrated alternative energy power

Figure 10: Hybrid configuration

Current international requirements for marine electrical power supply equipment and machinery such as engines, turbines and batteries have evolved over decades and their applicability to new technologies and operating regimes is now being questioned by organizations responsible for the regulation of safety and reliability of ships. [7, 11].

Various technologies have been employed towards the use of alternative free energy of the sun since the first discovery in the 18th century. Improvement and development has been made towards making it available for use like existing reigning source of energy. Major equipment and hardware for the hybrid configuration are:

1. Semiconductor solar with high efficient storage capability will be designed
2. Hybrid back- up power will be design based with integrative capability to other alternative power source like wind and hydrogen
3. Controller design for power synchronization will be designed and prototyped
4. Inverter and other power conversion units will be selected based on power needs
5. Solar collector or receiver with high efficiency collection capacity will be designed
6. Software development and simulation
7. Steam will be used as energy transfer medium

The power plants can be built in small units combined, which allow greater control over the output and maintains full operational output 100% of the time. The plant produces fewer emissions, the plant can be located close to the areas where the power is required cutting down on the need for expensive high power lines. Excess energy produced can be connected to the grid under power purchase arrangement.

The system can be built in independent power configuration and user will be free from supply cut out. In a typical off-grid scenario a large battery bank is required to store energy. Solar hydrogen hybrid energy is stored in the form of hydrogen gas. When it is dark out, instead of drawing energy from a battery bank,

hydrogen gas is converted into electricity through a fuel-cell. Likewise, during the day when there is plenty of energy from the sun, water is converted into hydrogen gas through the use of a hydrogen generator. Most electrical power systems are a combination of small units of power group to provide the larger output.

Hybrid system design should begin with problem definition of providing a port with power, follow by refining the design so that each individual units power output could be combined to provide the input for a larger unit and ensure efficient, effect operation, maintenance. The hybrid system should be able to provide more power that can keep the stress and strain of operation to a minimum and reduces the failure of the component parts.

The hybrid system can provide means to by- pass and overcome limitation posed by past work in generating replaceable natural energy of the sun and other renewable energy source that can be designed in hybrid system. Reliable deployment of hybrid system developments of mathematical model follow by prototyping, experimentation and simulation of the system are key to the design and its implementation. The main advantages of hybrid configurations are: Redundancy and modularity, high reliability of hybrid circuitry embedded control system, improve emergency energy switching and transfer, low operating cost through integrated design, low environmental impacts due to nature of the energy source. System optimization with combined heat and alternative power production technologies:

The Production and Storage of Heat
Space Heating Storage Heaters
Hot Water Storage
Instantaneous Space and Water Heaters
Uses for Excess Electricity
Electricity Storage Devices

9. Potential impacts to marine system

9.1 Impact to marine system

The use of biofuels as a fuel has increased in most transportation sectors. Adopting this technology in marine industry is still slow despite flexibility offered by use of energy on ship compare to mass requirement for land based industry and ambient temperature performance for aviation industry. Cost remain one of the main driver, slow speed diesel engines can run on lower quality fuels, they can replace distillate marine oils associated technical difficult. Calorific energy value for main propulsion could also result in a reduced service speed, range or larger bunker tanks. Major benefit of using environmental friendly engine is illustrated in figure 16.

Figure 16: benefit of using environmental friendly engine

9.1.1 Potential for port coastal and port infrastructure: A variety of methods could turn an age-old natural resource into a new and efficient means of generating electricity. Biomass in large amounts is available in many areas, and is being considered as a fuel source for future generation of electricity. Biomass is bulky, widely distributed and electricity from conventional, centralized power plants requires an extensive distribution network. Traditionally power is generated through centralized, conventional power plant, where biomass is transported to the central plant. Typically a steam or gas turbine power plant and the electricity is then distributed through the grid to the end users.

9.1.2 Potential for ship and offshore system: Micro-biomass power generators seem to offer a path for new solution for energy at end user disposal. Recent development towards use of micro biomass can offer best practice adaptation for marine unitized biomass power. Such biomass can be used near the site of end-use, with heat from external combustion converted directly to electricity by a biomass fired free-piston genset. Costs of installation include fuel acquisition and maintenance of the genset and burner. Since the electricity is used on site, both transmission losses and distribution costs are minimal. Thus, in areas without existing infrastructure to transmit power, there are no additional costs. It is also possible to cogenerate using the rejected heat for space or hot water heating, or absorption cooling. This is ideal for ship and offshore system. Figure 17 shows typical prime mover arrangement for ship

Micro-biomass power generation is a more advantageous and cost-effective means of providing power than centralised biomass power generation. Especially in area where there is a need for both power and heating. Domestic hot water, space heat and absorption chilling are attractive for cogeneration configurations of microbiofuel plant. Biomass can be generated using single or ganged free-piston Stirling engines gensets. They can be placed at the end-user location taking advantage of local fuel prices and do not require a distribution grid. They can directly provide electrical output with integral linear alternators, or where power requirements are larger they can be connected in series and parallel to drive a conventional rotary turbine. They are hermetically sealed and offer long lives through their non-contact operation [12,13].

Biomass is a substantial opportunity to generate micro-biomass electric power, at power levels from fractions of kilowatts through to tens or hundreds of kilowatts, at the point of end use. Neither small internal combustion engines, which cannot use biomass directly, nor reciprocating steam engines, with low efficiency and limited life, can offer the end user economic electric power. Free-piston Stirling micro biomass engine are an economic alternative. Stirling offers the following advantages over significantly larger systems:

Stirling machines have reasonable overall efficiencies at moderate heater head temperatures (~600ƒC)
cogeneration is simple
large amounts of capital do not have to be raised to build a single evaluation plant with its associated technical and economic risks
A large fraction of the value of the engine alternator can be reused at the end of its life
Stirling systems can be ganged with multiple units operating in parallel.

Biodiesel machinery design, installation, operation

and maontaonace requirements are:

Fuel management: Fuel management is complex in this new era because fuel aging and oxidation can lead to high acid number, high viscosity, the formation of gums and sediments. Supply chain supply of biofuel to ship can be done through pre-mixed to the required blend. Here the biofuel and diesel are supplied separately to the ship, and then mixed on board. This gives the operator the chance to dictate the exact blend of biofuels depending on conditions. But that would require retrofitting or new technology to be installed on board together with additional complexity for the crew. It is also important to monitor the fuel acid number value to ensure that no rancid, acidic fuel is introduced to the injection system. A typical layout should involve separators to ensure that water is removed from the fuel, as well as heaters at various stages to ensure the fuel is at the correct temperature before they enter engine.
Temperature monitoring system: Technical problem that need to be further mitigated is the CFPP indication of low temperature operability of range between 0°C and 15°C for different types of biodiesels. This can cause problems with filter clogging, this can only be overcome by carefully monitoring of the fuel tank temperatures. This can affect ships operating in cold climates, where additional tank heating coils and heating may be required to avoid this from happening.
Corrosion control: Biodiesels are hygroscopic and require to be maintained at 1200-1500 ppm water, which can cause significant corrosion damage to fuel injection systems. Mitigation can be exercise through appropriate fuel conditioning prior to injection. Biodiesels. Injector fouling especially the blend type produces deposits due to presence of fatty acid and water in the fuel. This can result to increased corrosion of the injector system. Also viscous glycerides can contribute to further injector coking. Biodiesel due to its chemical properties degrades, softens or seeps through some gaskets and seals with prolonged exposure. Biodiesels are knows to be good solvents and therefore cause coating complexity. Reports of aggressiveness of biodiesel and bioethanol on tank coatings have been reported. In its pure form biodiesel, as a methyl ester, is less aggressive to epoxy coatings than ethanol. Therefore ethanol should be carried in tanks coated with dedicated tank coatings such a phenolic epoxy or zinc silicate tank coatings.
Lubrication: Biofuel lubricant may have impact on engine crankcase cleanliness and the potential consequences of fuel dilution. The droplet characteristics and lower volatility of biodiesel compared with conventional diesel, together with spray pattern and wall impingement in the modern diesel engines, can help noncombusted biodiesel past the piston rings. And also to make contact with the cylinder liner and be scrapped down into the oil sump. The unburnt biodiesel tends to remain in the sump and the level of contamination may progressively build up over time. This can result in reduced lubricant viscosity and higher risk of component wear. A serious concern is the possibility that the unburnt biodiesel entering the oil sump may be oxidised, thus promoting oil thickening and requiring greater oil changes.

9.2 Impact to shipping

It is clear that biomass will fuel freight increase as well asspecialized new design of chemical tankers. Biodiesel is an IMO 2 cargo, its vegetable oil feedstocks are IMO cargoes with double hull IMO 3 vessel configuration required. Ethanol typically transports in chemical tankers due to its cargo requirement but technological change break through could bring potential regulatory design change. Flexibility for ship conversion and retrofitting system could upset initial cost problem.

9.2.1 Port, Inland waterways and coastal vessel: There is potential for us of biodiesels for small craft that operate within inland water because of air and water pollution sensitivity associated with inland water transportation. The port facilities in Malaysia and Indonesia are already being improved to handle Handysize and Panamax tankers. There is also potential requirement for transshipment and supply vessel, supply chain for short sea service.

9.2.2 Cargo: 3rd generation biofuels wil required to be processed from solid cargoes to liquid cargoes. Of the wood currently harvested, 30% is waste. This is not going to be a waste in the future and will be converted by a Fischer Tropsch biomass to liquid processing plant. For coastal shipping to handle this trade, there wil be need for new generation of 5,000 tonne deadweight dry cargo vessels. It is expected that these voyages will be regulated under the new Dry Bulk Cargo Code (BC Code). This is due to become mandatory in 2011.

6.2.3 Shipping Routes and Economics Impacts

The above trend analysis discussed indicate potential capacity requirement from shipping. so far North America, Europe and South East Asia are the key importing regions where this growth is concentrated. Latin American counties of Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay and Southeast Asia's Indonesia and Malaysia will remain key suppliers for the palm oil, Philippines and Papua New Guinea have potentials for vegetable oil and agricultural while Thailand has potential for sugarcane.

6.2.5 Regulatory framework impact

In many parts of the world, environmental concerns are the leading political driver for biofuels. This driving force evolved regulation like Kyoto protocoal, Marpol Annex VI and other environmental regulation. The tonne mile demand for future tankers will be greatly affected by national, regional, global policy and political decision making. There is a greater flexibility in the sourcing of biofuels than there is in hydrocarbon energy sources and this may be attractive to particular governments. Once the regulatory framework is clear, economics will determine how the regulations will best be met and seaborne trade will be at the centre of the outcome.

10. Conclusion

The main challenge to use of biomass for power generation, therefore, is to develop more-efficient, lower-cost systems. Advanced biomass-based systems for power generation require fuel upgrading, combustion cycle improvement, and better flue-gas treatment. Future biomass based power. Generation technologies need to provide superior environmental protection at lower cost by combining sophisticated biomass preparation, combustion, and conversion processes with post combustion cleanup. Such systems include fluidized combustion, biomass integrated gasification, and biomass externally fired gas turbines. Ships life cycle is around 20- 25, for ship owners to make the most of the upcoming markets, it is necessary to be prepared for the new cargoes. Current ship designs may not be suited for biofuel ships. Therefore there is potential for pressure on organizations to adopt new standards to accommodate the demand driven by governmental legislation. This in itself has some risk involved, also the trade routes could create economy of large scale leading to larger ship production and sub sequential requirement from designer .Other evolving challenges to secure energy and environment are Fuel cell technology, nuclear, natural gas and fuels made from waste plastics.

Reference

[1] Sustainable Energy Ireland. "CO2 and Other Environmental Emissions Data" Table 7D, web site www.irish-energy.ie/publications/ index.html.

[2] M. K. Mann and P. L. Spath, "A Comparison of the Environmental Consequences of Power from Biomass, Coal, and Natural Gas". Presentation at

[3] the Energy Analysis Forum. Golden, CO, May 29-30, 2002. web site www.nrel.gov/analysis/pdfs/m_mann.pdf.

[4] G. Wiltsee. "Lessons Learned from Existing Biomass Power Plants." NREL/SR-570-26946 Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, February 2000. web site www.nrel.gov/docs/fy00osti/26946.pdf.

[5] Lane, N. W. and Beale, W.T. (1996a). "Stirling Engines for Micro-Cogen and Cooling. Proc Strategic Gas Forum". Detroit M. June 19-20, 1996.

[6] R.L. Graham, B.C. English, and C.E. Noon, "A Geographic Information System-based Modeling System for Evaluating the Cost of Delivered Energy Crop Feedstocks" Biomass and Bioenergy, Vol. 18 (2000), pp. 309-329.

[7] M. J. Grubb. "The Integration of Renewable Electricity Sources". Energy Policy. 1991. Vol. 19, No. 7.pp 670-688.

[8] F. R. McLarnon, E. J. Cairns, "Energy Storage", Review of Energy, Vol. 14, pp 241-271.

[9] IMO, "Marine Environmental Protection Committee". 44th session available at: http: www.imo.org/meeting/44.html, 2000.

[10] H. Lund, P. A. Ostergaard. "Electric Grid and Heat Planning Scenarios with Centralised and Distributed Sources of Conventional. CHP and Wind generation". Energy 25. 2000, pp 299-312.

[11] D. McEvoy, D. C. Gibbs, J. W. S. Longhurst, "City-regions and the Development of Sustainable Energy Supply Systems". Int. J. Energy Res. 2000, 24. pp 215-237.

[12] G. C. Seeling-Hochmuth, "A combined optimisation concept for the design and operation strategy of hybrid-PV energy systems". Solar Energy. 1997. Vol. 61, No. 2. pp 77-87.

[17] R. Chedid, S. Rahman, "Unit sizing and control of hybrid wind-solar power systems". IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 1997. Vol. 12, No. 1. pp 79-85.

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Potential of Marine System Biomass Cogeneration

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